Scaling law of COVID-19 cases and city size and its evolution over time

Urban scaling law quantifies the disproportional growth of urban indicators with urban population size, which is one of the simple rules behind the complex urban system. Infectious diseases are closely related to social interactions that intensify in large cities, resulting in a faster speed of transmission in large cities. However, how this scaling relationship varies in an evolving pandemic is rarely investigated and remains unclear. Here, taking the COVID- 19 epidemic in the United States as an example, we collected daily added cases and deaths from January 2020 to June 2022 in more than three thousand counties to explore the scaling law of COVID- 19 cases and city size and its evolution over time. Results show that COVID- 19 cases super- linearly scaled with population size, which means cases increased faster than population size from a small city to a large city, resulting in a higher morbidity rate of COVID- 19 in large cities. Temporally, the scaling exponent that reflects the scaling relationship stabilized at around 1.25 after a fast increase from less than one. The scaling exponent gradually decreased until it was close to one. In comparison, deaths caused by the epidemic did not show a super-linear scaling relationship with population size, which revealed that the fatality rate of COVID-19 in large cities was not higher than that in small or medium-sized cities. The scaling exponent of COVID- 19 deaths shared a similar trend with that of COVID- 19 cases but with a lag in time. We further estimated scaling exponents in each wave of the epidemic, respectively, which experienced the common evolution process of first rising, then stabilizing, and then decreasing. We also analyzed the evolution of scaling exponents over time from regional and provincial perspectives. The northeast, where New York State is located, had the highest scaling exponent, and the scaling exponent of COVID- 19 deaths was higher than that of COVID-19 cases, which indicates that large cities in this region were more prominently affected by the epidemic. This study reveals the size effect of infectious diseases based on the urban scaling law, and the evolution process of scaling exponents over time also promotes the understanding of the urban scaling law. The mechanism behind temporal variations of scaling exponents is worthy of further exploration. © 2023 Science Press. All rights reserved.

Spatial Analysis of Haikou Third-level First-class Hospitals Based on Geographic Information System

Nowadays, spatial geographic data analysis and GIS related software are more and more applied to the planning of urban public facilities. Under the COVID-19, people pay more attention to the protection of medical facilities for people's health, and a reasonable distribution of hospital facilities is conducive to people's health. Taking Haikou City as an example, this research will optimize the location of hospital space layout according to the existing third-level first-class general hospitals in Haikou City by using GIS software, road analysis, spatial analysis, and other methods. The results show that the existing hospitals in Haikou are too concentrated in the central urban area, the overall distribution of medical facilities is lack of balance, and there is a serious lack of medical facilities in new urban development areas and suburbs. According to the comparison between population density analysis and traffic analysis and the service scope of existing hospitals, the author finds out the scope of hospitals that need to be supplemented, and then calculates the scope of service area after taking several random points within the scope, and finally finds the one with the largest service scope is the optimal location. The results obtained by optimizing the site selection can provide a scientific reference for the rational layout of medical facilities in Haikou City in the future. © 2023 SPIE.

Coupling Random Forest, Allometric Scaling, and Cellular Automata to Predict the Evolution of LULC under Various Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

Accurately estimating land-use demand is essential for urban models to predict the evolution of urban spatial morphology. Due to the uncertainties inherent in socioeconomic development, the accurate forecasting of urban land-use demand remains a daunting challenge. The present study proposes a modeling framework to determine the scaling relationship between the population and urban area and simulates the spatiotemporal dynamics of land use and land cover (LULC). An allometric scaling (AS) law and a Markov (MK) chain are used to predict variations in LULC. Random forest (RF) and cellular automata (CA) serve to calibrate the transition rules of change in LULC and realize its micro-spatial allocation (MKCA(RF-AS)). Furthermore, this research uses several shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) as scenario storylines. The MKCA(RF-AS) model is used to predict changes in LULC under various SSP scenarios in Jinjiang City, China, from 2020 to 2065. The results show that the figure of merit (FoM) and the urban FoM of the MKCA(RF-AS) model improve by 3.72% and 4.06%, respectively, compared with the MKCA(ANN) model during the 2005-2010 simulation period. For a 6.28% discrepancy between the predicted urban land-use demand and the actual urban land-use demand over the period 2005-2010, the urban FoM degrades by 21.42%. The growth of the permanent urban population and urban area in Jinjiang City follows an allometric scaling law with an exponent of 0.933 for the period 2005-2020, and the relative residual and R-2 are 0.0076 and 0.9994, respectively. From 2020 to 2065, the urban land demand estimated by the Markov model is 19.4% greater than the urban area predicted under scenario SSP5. At the township scale, the different SSP scenarios produce significantly different spatial distributions of urban expansion rates. By coupling random forest and allometric scaling, the MKCA(RF-AS) model substantially improves the simulation of urban land use.

‘I've left enough data': Relations between people and data and the production of surveillance

Exploring emergent relations between data-producing individuals and their data products, this study aims to contribute to the ongoing scholarly discussion on agencies in data practices. It focuses on shifts in surveillance structure in the era of Big Data, in which the individual becomes both a subject and an object in the production of data surveillance. Drawing on the concept of the ‘dividual', the study analyses data practices for a tracing system invented by the South Korean government during the COVID-19 pandemic, with findings from field research conducted with 11 research participants in various urban sites in Seoul. Highlighting how the tracing system positioned surveillance ‘in the hands of citizens', the study exposes the complexities of the relations that the participants formed with the data they produced, and how they reflexively reappropriated their practices through alterations and deflections on the basis of their tacit knowledge and imaginaries concerning digital data and their constituent positions in the knowledge production system. The resultant expression of surveillance was directly shaped by the evolving relationship between the producers (participants) and products (digital data). The study proposes that an intersectional focus on surveillance and critical data studies, with close attention to ordinary people's relations with data, has the capacity to inquire into the politics of data more fully. © The Author(s) 2023.

Urban restaurants and online food delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic: a spatial and socio-demographic analysis

In this research, we analyzed the delivery service areas of restaurants, customer satisfaction, and restaurant sales of urban restaurants during the COVID-19 pandemic. We obtained the datasets on food ordering options and restaurant rankings based on Google Maps, Open Street Map, and widely known online food order applications in Iran. Based on this analysis we further modeled suitable areas for future extension of restaurants. We analyzed the online food order data of restaurants' sales and food delivery reports for 1050 restaurants in the city of Tabriz. We collected and analyzed data on the restaurant locations, the number of food orders for each restaurant, and the number of customers and their locations. Our results revealed that the spatial dimension of the newly emerging food delivery areas is of utmost importance for the success of restaurants. This indicates that an optimal location is not longer only dependent on factors like population density and competitors in the direct vicinity but on the services density even from more distant competitors. The results indicate that an optimized spatial distribution of the restaurants together with efficient quality in services can contribute to optimistic urban development. © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

COVID-19 and Urban Futures: Impacts on Business Closures in Miami-Dade County

The COVID-19 pandemic altered the local economic geographies of many U.S. cities, and it remains unclear how long these changes will persist. This study analyzed the sociospatial dynamics of business closures in Miami-Dade County, Florida, from August 2020 to August 2021 with an explicit focus on reconciling the pandemic's effects in the context of location theory. We found that traditional urban centers and transit-concentrated areas experienced disproportionately higher rates of business closures during the study period, suggesting a potential wave of commercial suburbanization in Miami. Middle-class and working-class Hispanic neighborhoods suffered the most business closures. The results of correlation analysis and spatial regression models suggested a positive association between the incidence of COVID-19 cases and business closures at both zip code and individual business levels. These results also beckon a revaluation of the role of certain urban externalities in traditional location theory. The importance of automobile accessibility and agglomeration effects are poised to persist beyond the pandemic, but the benefits of proximity to the public transport system might decline. The trends observed in Miami suggest that the pandemic could generate more automobile-reliant employment subcenters in U.S. cities and amplify problems of intraurban inequality and urban sprawl. (English) [ FROM AUTHOR] La pandemia del COVID-19 alteró las geografías económicas locales de muchas ciudades de los Estados Unidos, y aún no hay claridad por cuánto tiempo más persistirán estos cambios. Este estudio analizó la dinámica socioespacial del cierre de negocios en el Condado de Miami-Dade, Florida, de agosto del 2020 hasta agosto del 2021, centrándose explícitamente en reconciliar los efectos de la pandemia dentro del contexto de la teoría locacional. Descubrimos que los centros urbanos tradicionales y las áreas de tránsito concentrado experimentaron tasas desproporcionadamente más altas de cierres de negocios durante el período del estudio, lo cual sugiere una ola potencial de suburbanización comercial en Miami. Los vecindarios hispánicos de clase media y de la clase trabajadora sufrieron al máximo de cierres de negocios. Los resultados del análisis de los modelos de correlación y regresión espacial sugirieron una asociación positiva entre la incidencia de los casos de COVID-19 y los cierres de negocios, tanto al nivel de los códigos zip como de los negocios individuales. Estos resultados también invitan a la revaluación del papel de ciertas externalidades urbanas en la teoría locacional tradicional. La importancia de la accesibilidad al automóvil y los efectos de la aglomeración muestran disposición a persistir más allá de la pandemia, opero los beneficios de la proximidad del sistema de transporte público podría declinar. La tendencia observada en Miami sugiere que la pandemia podría generar más subcentros de empleo dependientes del automóvil en las ciudades americanas y ampliar los problemas de desigualdad intraurbana y la dispersión urbana. (Spanish) [ FROM AUTHOR] COVID-19疫情改变了美国许多城市的地方经济地理。目前, 尚不清楚这些变化会持续多久。本研究分析了2020年8月至2021年8月期间佛罗里达州迈阿密-戴德县商业倒闭的社会空间变化, 根据区位理论探讨了对疫情影响的缓解。我们发现, 在此期间, 传统的城市中心和交通密集地区经历了不成比例的更高的商业倒闭率, 这表明迈阿密可能会出现商业郊区化浪潮。西班牙裔中产阶级和工人阶级社区出现了最多的商业倒闭。相关性分析和空间回归模型结果表明, 在邮政编码尺度和个体尺度, COVID-19发病率与商业倒闭都存在着正相关性。这些结果也呼吁, 需要重新评估某些城市外部特性在传统区位理论中的作用。汽车可及性和聚集效应的重要性将会一直持续到疫情之后, 但公共交通系统的临近优势可能会下降。迈阿密的趋势表明, COVID-19可能会在美国城市产生更多依赖于汽车的就业分中心, 加剧城市内部不平等、城市扩张等问题。 (Chinese) [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Annals of the American Association of Geographers is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Ambient Air Quality in the Southwest Coastal Urban Regions of India

The rapid growth of urban areas and population as well as associated development over recent decades have been a major factor controlling ambient air quality of the urban environment in Kerala (India). Being located at the southwestern fringe of the Indian peninsula, Kerala is one of the regions that has been significantly influenced by the activities in the Indian Ocean. The present study focuses on the effect of the COVID-19 lockdown (in 2021) on ambient air quality in the selected coastal metropolitan areas of Kerala. Although previous research studies reported improvement in ambient air quality in Kerala during the lockdown period, this study demonstrates the potential of onshore transport of air pollutants in controlling the air quality of coastal urban regions during the lockdown period. Data from the ambient air quality monitoring stations of the Kerala State Pollution Control Board in the urban areas of Thiruvananthapuram (TM), Kollam (KL), Kozhikode (KZ), and Kannur (KN) are used for the analysis. Temporal variation in the concentration of air pollutants during the pre-lockdown (PRLD), lockdown (LD), and post-lockdown (PTLD) periods (i.e., 1 March to 31 July) of 2021 is examined to assess the effect of lockdown measures on the National Air Quality Index (AQI). Results indicate a significant decline in the levels of air pollutants and subsequent improvement in air quality in the coastal urban areas. All the effect of lockdown measures has been evident in the AQI, an increase in the concentration of different pollutants including CO, SO2, and NH3 during the LD period suggests contributions from multiple sources including onshore transport due to marine traffic and transboundary transport. © 2023, The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy Sciences.

Eco-Friendly IoT Solutions for Smart Cities Development: An Overview

The last three years showed global systems' fragility in different disciplines, such as medicine, travel, and trade. Moreover, environmental changes are still happening in extreme weather phenomena, exacerbating COVID-19 in the world health sector. Therefore, the world needs to work hard in both traditional and modern technological ways to develop smart solutions for the development of smart cities to create open, interconnected networks for everyone. The focus of intense research worldwide is the development of standardized eco-friendly sensor networks enabled by IoT technology. This study presents a comprehensive overview of the challenges facing the world and humans in the current era and how modern technologies, including the Internet of Things (IoT), can make a real change in smart city development and save the global environment. These technological solutions and frameworks help to achieve innovative administration, high adaptability, better efficiency, and productivity. In particular, the paper spots light on top environmental challenges according to impact and likelihood classifications. Also, it discusses recent green technology solutions for smart city development in many applications, such as e-waste management, climate change adaptation, water crises, and natural disaster management. © 2023 IEEE.

Rebuilding the Capabilities for Post COVID-19 Pandemic: Issues and Challenges of Bangalore Model of Development

The pace of urbanization has achieved considerable momentum in recent years with 34.93 per cent of India's population living in urban areas. However, the COVID - 19 pandemic has severely affected urban development with adverse effects on people's mobility, consumption level, health and poverty. Bangalore, the capital of Karnataka and the third largest city in India, has a population of 11 million and contributes more than one third of the state's GDP. The expansion of certain sectors including Information Technology, infrastructure and spread of educational institutions has fueled Bangalore's rapid growth in the past three decades which has made it a regional superpower in India, if not South Asia. This paper explores the unique features of the 'Bangalore Model of Development' as a regional development model and provides a systematic introspection of its capabilities. It discusses the impact of the pandemic on the key driving forces of Bangalore Model and assesses the current government measures. The situation analysis with the policy prescriptions would help to strengthen and sustain the urban system during the postpandemic times. © 2022 IEEE.

"Inhabiting the bush”: urban development, socio-environmental issues and territorial defence in the Mountain ranges of Córdoba, Argentina (2001-2022)

Since the last twenty years, and more especially after the COVID 19 health crisis, the mountain ranges of Cordoba (Argentina) has been experiencing an accelerated process of demographic growth and urban expansion. The change from rural to urban land use is identified as the basis of a process of territorial transformation that exacerbates pre-existing local problems. This paper aims to analyse the socio-environmental impact of urban development in the Para-vachasca Valley in order to identify the challenges for the environmental management of the territory of small towns of landscape and environmental value that involve a sustainability per-spective. In order to do so, we analysed the processes of territorial defence related with the so-cio-environmental issues that affect these spaces. Results are presented in relation to narratives that place care for the environment and more sustainable ways of living at the centre. © 2023, Universidad de Granada. All rights reserved.

Urban Regeneration and Touristification in the Sardinian Capital City of Cagliari, Italy

Regeneration agendas and inbound tourism flows have long been considered a remedy for economic crisis. In port cities, a prominent role in urban regeneration is played by the waterfronts, which have been undergoing radical makeovers worldwide since the 1960s. The city of Cagliari stuck to the same recipe, promoting a series of regeneration initiatives and implementing a series of policies to boost the tourism sector. This study combines the use of primary and secondary sources and the analysis of qualitative and quantitative data to create a useful picture of both current reality and historical development of the city. It demonstrated that development strategies promoted in Cagliari, rather than balancing tourism promotion and local community needs, contributed to the amplification and acceleration of the touristification process. Therefore, many of the challenges posed by overtourism, dread in the literature, are today faced by Cagliari and its inhabitants. In addition, the study also identifies in the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic a unique opportunity to reverse the touristification process and to achieve a sustainable manner of tourism development. Therefore, it offers some policy recommendations to define principled urban regeneration models, alternatives which are able to achieve urban revitalization while avoiding touristification. © 2023 by the author.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF CRUISE SHIPS TO THE SOUND EMISSION OF A HARBOUR

In recent years, the growth of cruise tourism has often been at the centre of controversy due to the environmental impact, especially for those harbours that, for historical and urban planning reasons, are in close contact with urban areas of particular value or under cultural heritage protection. The deadlock of cruise activities due to the COVID-19 pandemic emergency created the conditions for observing the effects of the substantial disappearance of a specific sound source from the harbours of many cities. This paper presents the evaluation of the contribution of large cruise ships to the overall noise emitted by a specialized cruise harbour and the consequences of their absence on the urban acoustic climate. © International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration (IIAV), 2022.

Results from The Quiet Project- UK Acoustic Community's response to COVID19

The COVID-19 Lockdown created a new kind of environment both in the UK and globally, never experienced before or likely to occur again. A vital and time-critical working group was formed with the aim of gathering crowd-source high quality baseline noise levels and other supporting information. The acoustic community were mobilised through existing networks engaging private companies, public organisations, and academics to gather data in accessible places. A website was designed to advertise the project, provide instructions and to formalise the uploading of noise data, observations, and Soundscape feedback. The data was collected at 99 locations by 80 acousticians (64 male, 16 female) using professional grade calibrated instrumentation with 83% of measurements including spectral data. The locations covered 19 urban, 61 suburban, and 19 rural sites. The Lockdown 1 dataset consisted of a total of 1.6 GB of measurements and material (video, photos) covering 834 days between 1st April and 14th July 2020. This makes the award winning Quiet Project the largest ever noise and soundscape database ever recorded. The paper presents the quietest places in the UK and Ireland. As a government funded research project the databank will be made publicly available to assist future research. © 2022 Internoise 2022 - 51st International Congress and Exposition on Noise Control Engineering. All rights reserved.

MEMs Based Low-Cost Urban Noise Monitoring: Tests and Case Study

Noise pollution has been one of the main causes of citizens' discomfort in the urban centers in Brazil, an issue enhanced by the Covid pandemic that resulted in an increase of noise complaints, especially those related to noise from construction sites. This context triggered the construction industry to pursue solutions to understand the acoustic reality and minimize the impacts through regulations that require long-term noise measurements. Due to the necessity of a comprehensive evaluation in several locations, class 1 Sound Level Meters measurement systems can hardly be considered because of their high costs. This paper discusses the practical implementation of MEMs in a low-cost monitoring system for urban noise, focusing on construction sites. The prototype, based on a Raspberry Pi (a single-board computer model widely used in IoT projects) and a MEMs microphone with I2S interface for high-fidelity digital audio communication, was compared in a controlled environment to a Sound Level Meter of Class 1 through validation tests, such as calibration, frequency response, and dynamic range. Field measurements were also carried out in typical urban noise-generating sound environments. © 2022 Internoise 2022 - 51st International Congress and Exposition on Noise Control Engineering. All rights reserved.

Introduction

The H2020 CIVITAS SUITS project was conceived by Professor Andree Woodcock and colleagues in 2014/15. It was scheduled to run between 2016 and 2020 but owing to the COVID-19 pandemic was extended to spring 2021. The aim of the project was to support capacity building of small–medium local authorities developing sustainable transport measures. This volume provides an account of the outputs of the project, in the form of chapters and recommendations for local authorities and consultants who are entrusted in delivering transport services which are inclusive, fit for purpose and enable accessibility for all. Although larger authorities are relatively well equipped to make these changes, smaller, more traditional local authorities may lack the knowledge, capacity and capability to plan, finance and implement sustainable transport measures at a time of great socio economic, technological and cultural change. Such authorities are also required to adopt new ways of working at the same time as designing and planning multimillion-euro transport projects which will support smart city developments and significantly improve the mobility of their citizens. At the heart of H2020 CIVITAS SUITS is a socio-technical approach, which recognises that capacity building is more than just providing training, and it is about empowering members of an organisation to be innovative. This volume has been written to inform designed to inform the daily practices of transport departments and stakeholder groups engaged in commissioning sustainable transport measures of working on Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans. © 2023, Transport for West Midlands.

Public Health Approach to Outdoor Urban Health

Recent years of the Covid-19 pandemic have seen a proportional increase in the amount of time we spend in our homes each day. In spite of this, urban dwellers continue to spend-although varying from area to area of the world-many hours outside their homes for work, daily needs, recreation, and social relationships. This implies that the urban environment, both tangible and intangible, has several factors that can be both protective and risky for health. As highlighted in the 2016 Quito Conference, health can be the pulse of the new urban agenda for sustainable urban development [1]. It is not easy to take stock of where we are. On a global scale, there still seems to be a limited ethical-cultural awareness, a lack of political attention and thus of resource allocation, an insufficient capacity to use innovative choices and technologies and to actively involve local communities in decision-making processes and in the implementation of possible interventions. On the other hand, there are numerous positive experiences of urban realities that have produced convincing efforts in recent decades to make our cities more livable and healthy. Let us hope that the 2030 agenda proposed by the United Nations on the Sustainable Development Goals can really exert a driving role in this direction. A real willingness to set in motion virtuous processes to guarantee us a better quality of urban life, including by agreeing to revise our development and consumption patterns, will make all the difference. © 2023, The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.

Phygital technologies and environments for breakthrough innovation in customers' and citizens' journey. A critical literature review and future agenda

Digital transformation is radically impacting on society and market by disclosing unexpected implications for scholars and practitioners. As enablers of a pervasive innovation process, digital transformation relies on different categories of digital technologies with a breakthrough profile. Among them, phygital arises as a promising topic defined as the use of technology to bridge the digital with the physical world with the purpose of providing a unique interactive experience for the user. Due the actuality of the issue, the literature on phygital is fragmented and far from a full understanding of its meaning and implications. Moving from these premises, our research attempts to analyse the current state of the debate about the promising role of phygital environment to identify how digital technologies are transforming physical world. At this aim, a critical literature review is performed to identify how the customer experience is undergoing a renaissance due to the Covid-19 pandemic that forced organisations to improve the customer experiences. Our findings allow to identify main trends in the academic debate as grouped into five main clusters, related to the adoption of phygital technologies for: i) Marketing and Consumers' Behaviour;ii) Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Urban Development;iii) Education and Learning;iv) Social issues and Politics;v) Technical and Legal Issues. These areas are linked together showing how the different phygital environments lead to the provisions of novel and immersive experience for customers involved into strategic industries such as retail, tourism and education. Directions for future research and management implications are finally provided. © 2023 Elsevier Inc.

The Impact of E-commerce Delivery Alternatives on Urban Freight Movements and Cost: A Carrier Perspective

The potential impact of e-commerce on freight movements in cities is an important consideration for freight operators and policy makers, however little research focuses on the impact of e-commerce freight movements in urban areas, especially in the South African context. With the growth of e-commerce and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it is necessary to investigate methods to improve last-mile delivery planning for e-commerce deliveries in urban areas. The paper therefore focuses on evaluating the potential impacts of different e-commerce delivery methods (home delivery, collection points, and click-and-collect) on ecommerce freight movements and carrier cost. Results provide a good starting point to understand the potential impacts of delivery decisions and omni-channel design on delivery cost. Results from this analysis can be used by planners, decision-makers, and delivery service providers to glean some useful insights for improved planning of ecommerce operations and offerings. © 2022 IEEE.

Hazard exposure of bicyclists at urban intersections

Traditionally, mobility problems and automobile traffic congestion have increased in cities around the world due to the urban development process, especially in the city of Metropolitan Lima. For this reason, the government of the Peruvian capital has established temporary detours in certain sections of the arterial roads of the network, to invite new cyclists, due to the effects of Covid-19. Today, Lima has a network of 294 km of bicycle lanes, which have been implemented without adequate planning. In view of this, we evaluated the risk of poor planning on the vulnerable user (the cyclist) at an intersection of this road network, with a high rate of motorized congestion. The main objective of this study has been to propose corrective actions to avoid the exposure to danger on the users of the bicycle lane (countermeasures);due to lack of safety at the intersection of La Marina Ave. and Universitaria Ave. In this sense, a risk matrix was developed with the most concurrent factors that occur at this intersection;to then obtain a risk level and take actions in each of them, to mitigate the impact. The result obtained in the analysis of this study for the intersection is classified as a level 2 risk: Important risk, which means that it presents several important danger factors. Finally, in addition to the analyses developed, a treatment scheme was proposed for the intersection to provide greater safety to the users of the bicycle lane, avoiding fatal and non-fatal accidents. © 2022 IEEE.